How do ancillary services assist energy and capacity markets?

•  While purpose of energy markets is to deliver energy on a day to day basis as MWh, and purpose of capacity market to secure capacity in future as MW, 

• Purpose of ancillary services is primarily to maintain frequency

• Frequency varies based on dynamics between supply and demand. If the demand increases (or supply reduces)- Frequency goes down, and in case demand reduces- frequency goes up automatically. Demand can increase for example in summer months, in day time many people switch on air conditioning at same time. Supply can reduce for example if due a situation many power plants connected to the grid stop working. This can also be due to case where grid is depending on renewable energy sources, for example solar farms may not function optimally on cloudy days.

• Job of ancillary services is to ensure stable frequency is maintained at 50 or 60 Hz depending on the region,  and frequency in the grid does not swing wildly depending on changes in demand and supply- with which grid will not be able to function. Ancillary services build up Inertia in the grid, with governor response. This is typically achieved with  technologies such as gas turbine power plant.

What is difference between boiling and vaporization ?

Differences are as under:

1. Scope of molecules : In boiling molecules of whole liquid go into vapor state. In vaporization only surface molecules go into vapor state

2. Energy required: Boiling requires external source to break molecular bonds. In vaporization heat gained from sorroundings is enough for surface molecules

3. Temperature: Boiling occurs only at boiling temperature. Vaporization occurs at all temperatures. 

4. Interface: Boiling has a solid-liquid interface whereas vaporization has a liquid-vapor interface. 

What is difference between Capacity Market and Energy Only Market ?

•  In Capacity Market - Grid 'reliability' or 'capacity' is ensured by paying the participants to commit generation in years in future.

• Energy-Only Markets: They pay generators only when power is provided on a day-to-day basis.

• In general 'Wholesale' electricity markets have combination of both Capacity Market and Energy Only Market. In some rare cases with low electricity prices and high confidence in future availability, there could be cases where there are no Capacity Markets.

How much has CO2 concentration in atmosphere increased ?

Below is some data gathered on CO2 concentration in Earth's atmosphere. The references are also listed.

• As per IPCC report, warming caused by humans was approximately 1 deg C above pre-Industrial levels in 2017 [1].

• And it will increase at 0.2 deg C per decade (high confidence) [1]. Also warming greater than global average has been seen in some regions, with higher average warming over land than oceans [1]. 

• Global average atmospheric carbon dioxide in 2020 was 412.5 parts per Million (ppm) [2] against pre-Industrial levels (1750) of 280 +/- 10 ppm [3].  

• The present atmospheric CO2 concentration in atmosphere has not been reached during the past 420,000 years, and likely also not for the past 20 million years [3]. I personally find this fact quite astonishing!

• Since 2000, global atmospheric carbon dioxide amount has grown by 43.5 ppm, an increase of 12 percent [2]

References:

1. Intergovernmental panel for Climate Change. (2022, May3). Summary for policy makers. Chapter1. Executive Summary. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

2. NOAA Science & Information for a Climate-Smart Nation. Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide. Accessed on 22 May 22.

3. Intergovernmental panel for Climate Change. Report: The Carbon Cycle and atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar3/wg1/the-carbon-cycle-and-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide/